Seasonal Variation in Foraging Behaviour and Microhabitat Use of Urban–Rural Birds in District Swat, Pakistan: Seasonal Variation in Foraging Behavior and Microhabitat Use of Urban–Rural Birds

Azmat Ali

doi:10.54393/mjz.v7i2.218

Authors

Azmat Ali Department of Zoology, Government Post Graduate Jahanzeb College, Saidu Sharif, Pakistan

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.54393/mjz.v7i2.218

Keywords:

Urban Bird Ecology, Foraging Behavior, Seasonal Variation, Anthropogenic Disturbance, Habitat Heterogeneity, Behavioral Plasticity, Synanthropic Birds, Microhabitat Use

Abstract

Urban birds face ecological challenges including fluctuating temperatures, variable microhabitats, and persistent human disturbance, demanding continuous behavioral adjustment for survival. Objectives: To examine seasonal foraging behaviors in five sympatric urban bird species, Pycnonotus cafer, Acridotheres tristis, Columba livia, Corvus splendens, and Passer domesticus, in District Swat under urban-rural conditions. Methods: A total of 500 focal observations (100 per species) were recorded between 07:00 AM and 06:00 PM from 15 July, 2024 to 22 December 2025, spanning the summer-to-winter transition. Variables included species identity, ambient temperature, habitat type, flock size, anthropogenic disturbance, and foraging duration. Analyses included Kruskal-Wallis, Dunn post hoc, Spearman correlation, and a generalized linear model. Results: Significant interspecific differences were found in foraging duration (χ² = 225.33, p<0.001) and flock size (χ² = 336.17, p<0.001). Ambient temperature positively correlated with foraging duration (Spearman ρ = 0.523, p<0.001). Habitat type significantly influenced feeding behaviors (χ² = 157.23, p<0.001), with residential courtyards and rooftops supporting the longest foraging periods. The generalized linear model confirmed that temperature, species identity, habitat type, and anthropogenic disturbance all significantly affected foraging duration, with moderate disturbance linked to reduced feeding time. Conclusions: Urban bird species exhibit considerable behavioral flexibility, adjusting foraging strategies in response to seasonal shifts, habitat structure, and human activity. Microhabitat availability and environmental conditions are central to urban foraging patterns, offering insight into how synanthropic communities persist in human-modified landscapes.

References

Reusch K, Suárez N, Ryan PG, Pichegru L. Foraging Movements of Breeding Kelp Gulls in South Africa. Movement Ecology. 2020 Sep; 8(1): 36. doi: 10.1186/s40462-020-00221-x.

Andrade R, Larson KL, Franklin J, Lerman SB, Bateman HL, Warren PS. Species Traits Explain Public Perceptions of Human–Bird Interactions. Ecological Applications. 2022 Dec; 32(8): e2676. doi: 10.1002/eap.2676.

Boggie MA, Collins DP, Donnelly JP, Carleton SA. Land Use, Anthropogenic Disturbance, and Riverine Features Drive Patterns of Habitat Selection by a Wintering Waterbird in a Semi-Arid Environment. PLOS ONE. 2018 Nov; 13(11): e0206222. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206222.

Etterson M, Garber K, Odenkirchen E. Mechanistic Modeling of Insecticide Risks to Breeding Birds in North American Agroecosystems. PLoS One. 2017 May; 12(5): e0176998. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176998.

Fuirst M, Veit RR, Hahn M, Dheilly N, Thorne LH. Effects of Urbanization on the Foraging Ecology and Microbiota of the Generalist Seabird Larus Argentatus. PLoS One. 2018 Dec; 13(12): e0209200. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209200.

Catto S, Sumasgutner P, Amar A, Thomson RL, Cunningham SJ. Pulses of Anthropogenic Food Availability Appear to Benefit Parents, But Compromise Nestling Growth in Urban Red-Winged Starlings. Oecologia. 2021 Nov; 197(3): 565-76. doi: 10.1007/s00442-021-05033-3.

Ardila-Villamizar M, Alarcón-Nieto G, Maldonado-Chaparro AA. Fear in Urban Landscapes: Conspecific Flock Size Drives Escape Decisions in Tropical Birds. Royal Society Open Science. 2022 Nov; 9(11). doi: 10.1098/rsos.221344.

Breen AJ and Deffner D. Risk-Sensitive Learning Is a Winning Strategy for Leading an Urban Invasion. Elife. 2024 Apr; 12: RP89315. doi: 10.7554/eLife.89315.

Jones TB, Evans JC, Morand‐Ferron J. Urbanization and the Temporal Patterns of Social Networks and Group Foraging Behaviors. Ecology and Evolution. 2019 Apr; 9(8): 4589-602. doi: 10.1002/ece3.5060.

Lerman SB, Warren PS, Gan H, Shochat E. Linking Foraging Decisions to Residential Yard Bird Composition. PLoS ONE. 2012; 7(8): e43497. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043497.

Burt SA, Vos CJ, Buijs JA, Corbee RJ. Nutritional Implications of Feeding Free‐Living Birds in Public Urban Areas. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2021 Mar; 105(2): 385-93. doi: 10.1111/jpn.13441.

Chambon R, Paillisson JM, Fournier-Sowinski J, Dugravot S. Agricultural Habitat Use and Selection by a Sedentary Bird Over Its Annual Life Cycle in a Crop-Depredation Context. Movement Ecology. 2024 Mar; 12(1): 26. doi: 10.1186/s40462-024-00462-0.

Chard M, French K, Martin J, Major RE. Rain Drives Foraging Decisions of an Urban Exploiter. PLOS ONE. 2018 Apr; 13(4): e0194484. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194484.

Chouteau P. The impacts of Logging on the Microhabitats Used by Two Species of Couas in the Western Forest of Madagascar. Comptes Rendus Biologies. 2004 Dec; 327(12): 1157-70. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2004.09.011.

Evens R, Beenaerts N, Neyens T, Witters N, Smeets K, Artois T. Proximity of Breeding and Foraging Areas Affects Foraging Effort of a Crepuscular, Insectivorous Bird. Scientific Reports. 2018 Feb; 8(1): 3008. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-21321-0.

Foley M, Lato KA, Fuirst M, Veit RR, Cerrato RM, Thorne LH. Spatial and Temporal Predictability Drive Foraging Movements of Coastal Birds. Movement Ecology. 2025 Feb; 13(1): 5. doi: 10.1186/s40462-025-00531-y.

Evans BA and Gawlik DE. Urban Food Subsidies Reduce Natural Food Limitations and Reproductive Costs for a Wetland Bird. Scientific Reports. 2020 Aug; 10(1): 14021. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-70934-x.

Leveau LM. Microhabitat Selection by Ground-Foraging Birds in Urban Parks. Animals. 2025 Apr; 15(8): 1155. doi: 10.3390/ani15081155.

Batsleer F, Maes D, Bonte D. Behavioral Strategies and the Spatial Pattern Formation of Nesting. The American Naturalist. 2022 Jan; 199(1): E15-27. doi: 10.1086/717226.

Cummings CR, Hernandez SM, Murray M, Ellison T, Adams HC, Cooper RE et al. Effects of an Anthropogenic Diet on Indicators of Physiological Challenge and Immunity of White Ibis Nestlings Raised in Captivity. Ecology and Evolution. 2020 Aug; 10(15): 8416-28. doi: 10.1002/ece3.6548.

D'Amico M, Rouco C, Russell JC, Román J, Revilla E. Invaders on the Road: Synanthropic Bird Foraging Along Highways. Oecologia Australis. 2013; 17(1): 86-95. doi: 10.4257/oeco.2013.1701.08.

Linares-Hernández GI, Dupuy-Rada JM, Parra-Tabla V, Feldman RE. Synanthropic Birds Increase Their Consumption of Non-Native Plants and Affect the Structure of Feeding Networks in Urban Green Areas of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. Avian Biology Research. 2025 Nov; 18(4): 134-43. doi: 10.1177/17581559251371500.

Gautam A, Singh A, Kalle R. Avian Neighbors: Density Patterns of Synanthropic Birds Along a Rural–Urban Landscape Gradient in Northern India. Scientific Reports. 2026 Feb. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-36510-5.